10 files changed, 969 insertions, 523 deletions
diff --git a/Documentation/git-update-ref.adoc b/Documentation/git-update-ref.adoc
index 9e6935d38d..9310ce9768 100644
--- a/Documentation/git-update-ref.adoc
+++ b/Documentation/git-update-ref.adoc
@@ -7,8 +7,10 @@ git-update-ref - Update the object name stored in a ref safely
 
 SYNOPSIS
 --------
-[verse]
-'git update-ref' [-m <reason>] [--no-deref] (-d <ref> [<old-oid>] | [--create-reflog] <ref> <new-oid> [<old-oid>] | --stdin [-z])
+[synopsis]
+git update-ref [-m <reason>] [--no-deref] -d <ref> [<old-oid>]
+git update-ref [-m <reason>] [--no-deref] [--create-reflog] <ref> <new-oid> [<old-oid>]
+git update-ref [-m <reason>] [--no-deref] --stdin [-z] [--batch-updates]
 
 DESCRIPTION
 -----------
@@ -57,6 +59,14 @@ performs all modifications together.  Specify commands of the form:
 With `--create-reflog`, update-ref will create a reflog for each ref
 even if one would not ordinarily be created.
 
+With `--batch-updates`, update-ref executes the updates in a batch but allows
+individual updates to fail due to invalid or incorrect user input, applying only
+the successful updates. However, system-related errors—such as I/O failures or
+memory issues—will result in a full failure of all batched updates. Any failed
+updates will be reported in the following format:
+
+	rejected SP (<old-oid> | <old-target>) SP (<new-oid> | <new-target>) SP <rejection-reason> LF
+
 Quote fields containing whitespace as if they were strings in C source
 code; i.e., surrounded by double-quotes and with backslash escapes.
 Use 40 "0" characters or the empty string to specify a zero value.  To
diff --git a/builtin/fetch.c b/builtin/fetch.c
index 5694a3a27f..45f143f2f1 100644
--- a/builtin/fetch.c
+++ b/builtin/fetch.c
@@ -687,7 +687,7 @@ static int s_update_ref(const char *action,
 		switch (ref_transaction_commit(our_transaction, &err)) {
 		case 0:
 			break;
-		case TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT:
+		case REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT:
 			ret = STORE_REF_ERROR_DF_CONFLICT;
 			goto out;
 		default:
diff --git a/builtin/update-ref.c b/builtin/update-ref.c
index c3903c104f..2b1e336ba1 100644
--- a/builtin/update-ref.c
+++ b/builtin/update-ref.c
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 #include "config.h"
 #include "gettext.h"
 #include "hash.h"
+#include "hex.h"
 #include "refs.h"
 #include "object-name.h"
 #include "parse-options.h"
@@ -13,7 +14,7 @@
 static const char * const git_update_ref_usage[] = {
 	N_("git update-ref [<options>] -d <refname> [<old-oid>]"),
 	N_("git update-ref [<options>]    <refname> <new-oid> [<old-oid>]"),
-	N_("git update-ref [<options>] --stdin [-z]"),
+	N_("git update-ref [<options>] --stdin [-z] [--batch-updates]"),
 	NULL
 };
 
@@ -565,6 +566,49 @@ static void parse_cmd_abort(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 	report_ok("abort");
 }
 
+static void print_rejected_refs(const char *refname,
+				const struct object_id *old_oid,
+				const struct object_id *new_oid,
+				const char *old_target,
+				const char *new_target,
+				enum ref_transaction_error err,
+				void *cb_data UNUSED)
+{
+	struct strbuf sb = STRBUF_INIT;
+	const char *reason = "";
+
+	switch (err) {
+	case REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT:
+		reason = "refname conflict";
+		break;
+	case REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_CREATE_EXISTS:
+		reason = "reference already exists";
+		break;
+	case REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF:
+		reason = "reference does not exist";
+		break;
+	case REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INCORRECT_OLD_VALUE:
+		reason = "incorrect old value provided";
+		break;
+	case REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INVALID_NEW_VALUE:
+		reason = "invalid new value provided";
+		break;
+	case REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_EXPECTED_SYMREF:
+		reason = "expected symref but found regular ref";
+		break;
+	default:
+		reason = "unkown failure";
+	}
+
+	strbuf_addf(&sb, "rejected %s %s %s %s\n", refname,
+		    new_oid ? oid_to_hex(new_oid) : new_target,
+		    old_oid ? oid_to_hex(old_oid) : old_target,
+		    reason);
+
+	fwrite(sb.buf, sb.len, 1, stdout);
+	strbuf_release(&sb);
+}
+
 static void parse_cmd_commit(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 			     const char *next, const char *end UNUSED)
 {
@@ -573,6 +617,10 @@ static void parse_cmd_commit(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 		die("commit: extra input: %s", next);
 	if (ref_transaction_commit(transaction, &error))
 		die("commit: %s", error.buf);
+
+	ref_transaction_for_each_rejected_update(transaction,
+						 print_rejected_refs, NULL);
+
 	report_ok("commit");
 	ref_transaction_free(transaction);
 }
@@ -609,7 +657,7 @@ static const struct parse_cmd {
 	{ "commit",        parse_cmd_commit,        0, UPDATE_REFS_CLOSED },
 };
 
-static void update_refs_stdin(void)
+static void update_refs_stdin(unsigned int flags)
 {
 	struct strbuf input = STRBUF_INIT, err = STRBUF_INIT;
 	enum update_refs_state state = UPDATE_REFS_OPEN;
@@ -617,7 +665,7 @@ static void update_refs_stdin(void)
 	int i, j;
 
 	transaction = ref_store_transaction_begin(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-						  0, &err);
+						  flags, &err);
 	if (!transaction)
 		die("%s", err.buf);
 
@@ -685,7 +733,7 @@ static void update_refs_stdin(void)
 			 */
 			state = cmd->state;
 			transaction = ref_store_transaction_begin(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-								  0, &err);
+								  flags, &err);
 			if (!transaction)
 				die("%s", err.buf);
 
@@ -701,6 +749,8 @@ static void update_refs_stdin(void)
 		/* Commit by default if no transaction was requested. */
 		if (ref_transaction_commit(transaction, &err))
 			die("%s", err.buf);
+		ref_transaction_for_each_rejected_update(transaction,
+						 print_rejected_refs, NULL);
 		ref_transaction_free(transaction);
 		break;
 	case UPDATE_REFS_STARTED:
@@ -727,6 +777,8 @@ int cmd_update_ref(int argc,
 	struct object_id oid, oldoid;
 	int delete = 0, no_deref = 0, read_stdin = 0, end_null = 0;
 	int create_reflog = 0;
+	unsigned int flags = 0;
+
 	struct option options[] = {
 		OPT_STRING( 'm', NULL, &msg, N_("reason"), N_("reason of the update")),
 		OPT_BOOL('d', NULL, &delete, N_("delete the reference")),
@@ -735,6 +787,8 @@ int cmd_update_ref(int argc,
 		OPT_BOOL('z', NULL, &end_null, N_("stdin has NUL-terminated arguments")),
 		OPT_BOOL( 0 , "stdin", &read_stdin, N_("read updates from stdin")),
 		OPT_BOOL( 0 , "create-reflog", &create_reflog, N_("create a reflog")),
+		OPT_BIT('0', "batch-updates", &flags, N_("batch reference updates"),
+			REF_TRANSACTION_ALLOW_FAILURE),
 		OPT_END(),
 	};
 
@@ -756,8 +810,10 @@ int cmd_update_ref(int argc,
 			usage_with_options(git_update_ref_usage, options);
 		if (end_null)
 			line_termination = '\0';
-		update_refs_stdin();
+		update_refs_stdin(flags);
 		return 0;
+	} else if (flags & REF_TRANSACTION_ALLOW_FAILURE) {
+		die("--batch-updates can only be used with --stdin");
 	}
 
 	if (end_null)
diff --git a/refs.c b/refs.c
index 998d5c3565..5ade33835f 100644
--- a/refs.c
+++ b/refs.c
@@ -1176,6 +1176,11 @@ struct ref_transaction *ref_store_transaction_begin(struct ref_store *refs,
 	CALLOC_ARRAY(tr, 1);
 	tr->ref_store = refs;
 	tr->flags = flags;
+	string_list_init_dup(&tr->refnames);
+
+	if (flags & REF_TRANSACTION_ALLOW_FAILURE)
+		CALLOC_ARRAY(tr->rejections, 1);
+
 	return tr;
 }
 
@@ -1206,10 +1211,45 @@ void ref_transaction_free(struct ref_transaction *transaction)
 		free((char *)transaction->updates[i]->old_target);
 		free(transaction->updates[i]);
 	}
+
+	if (transaction->rejections)
+		free(transaction->rejections->update_indices);
+	free(transaction->rejections);
+
+	string_list_clear(&transaction->refnames, 0);
 	free(transaction->updates);
 	free(transaction);
 }
 
+int ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+				       size_t update_idx,
+				       enum ref_transaction_error err)
+{
+	if (update_idx >= transaction->nr)
+		BUG("trying to set rejection on invalid update index");
+
+	if (!(transaction->flags & REF_TRANSACTION_ALLOW_FAILURE))
+		return 0;
+
+	if (!transaction->rejections)
+		BUG("transaction not inititalized with failure support");
+
+	/*
+	 * Don't accept generic errors, since these errors are not user
+	 * input related.
+	 */
+	if (err == REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC)
+		return 0;
+
+	transaction->updates[update_idx]->rejection_err = err;
+	ALLOC_GROW(transaction->rejections->update_indices,
+		   transaction->rejections->nr + 1,
+		   transaction->rejections->alloc);
+	transaction->rejections->update_indices[transaction->rejections->nr++] = update_idx;
+
+	return 1;
+}
+
 struct ref_update *ref_transaction_add_update(
 		struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 		const char *refname, unsigned int flags,
@@ -1219,6 +1259,7 @@ struct ref_update *ref_transaction_add_update(
 		const char *committer_info,
 		const char *msg)
 {
+	struct string_list_item *item;
 	struct ref_update *update;
 
 	if (transaction->state != REF_TRANSACTION_OPEN)
@@ -1234,6 +1275,7 @@ struct ref_update *ref_transaction_add_update(
 	transaction->updates[transaction->nr++] = update;
 
 	update->flags = flags;
+	update->rejection_err = 0;
 
 	update->new_target = xstrdup_or_null(new_target);
 	update->old_target = xstrdup_or_null(old_target);
@@ -1246,6 +1288,16 @@ struct ref_update *ref_transaction_add_update(
 		update->msg = normalize_reflog_message(msg);
 	}
 
+	/*
+	 * This list is generally used by the backends to avoid duplicates.
+	 * But we do support multiple log updates for a given refname within
+	 * a single transaction.
+	 */
+	if (!(update->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY)) {
+		item = string_list_append(&transaction->refnames, refname);
+		item->util = update;
+	}
+
 	return update;
 }
 
@@ -2279,7 +2331,7 @@ int refs_update_symref_extended(struct ref_store *refs, const char *ref,
 					   REF_NO_DEREF, logmsg, &err))
 			goto error_return;
 		prepret = ref_transaction_prepare(transaction, &err);
-		if (prepret && prepret != TRANSACTION_CREATE_EXISTS)
+		if (prepret && prepret != REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_CREATE_EXISTS)
 			goto error_return;
 	} else {
 		if (ref_transaction_update(transaction, ref, NULL, NULL,
@@ -2297,7 +2349,7 @@ int refs_update_symref_extended(struct ref_store *refs, const char *ref,
 		}
 	}
 
-	if (prepret == TRANSACTION_CREATE_EXISTS)
+	if (prepret == REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_CREATE_EXISTS)
 		goto cleanup;
 
 	if (ref_transaction_commit(transaction, &err))
@@ -2311,8 +2363,13 @@ cleanup:
 	return ret;
 }
 
-int ref_update_reject_duplicates(struct string_list *refnames,
-				 struct strbuf *err)
+/*
+ * Write an error to `err` and return a nonzero value iff the same
+ * refname appears multiple times in `refnames`. `refnames` must be
+ * sorted on entry to this function.
+ */
+static int ref_update_reject_duplicates(struct string_list *refnames,
+					struct strbuf *err)
 {
 	size_t i, n = refnames->nr;
 
@@ -2426,6 +2483,10 @@ int ref_transaction_prepare(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 		return -1;
 	}
 
+	string_list_sort(&transaction->refnames);
+	if (ref_update_reject_duplicates(&transaction->refnames, err))
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
+
 	ret = refs->be->transaction_prepare(refs, transaction, err);
 	if (ret)
 		return ret;
@@ -2496,19 +2557,21 @@ int ref_transaction_commit(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 	return ret;
 }
 
-int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
-				   const struct string_list *refnames,
-				   const struct string_list *extras,
-				   const struct string_list *skip,
-				   unsigned int initial_transaction,
-				   struct strbuf *err)
+enum ref_transaction_error refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
+					  const struct string_list *refnames,
+					  const struct string_list *extras,
+					  const struct string_list *skip,
+					  struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+					  unsigned int initial_transaction,
+					  struct strbuf *err)
 {
 	struct strbuf dirname = STRBUF_INIT;
 	struct strbuf referent = STRBUF_INIT;
 	struct string_list_item *item;
 	struct ref_iterator *iter = NULL;
+	struct strset conflicting_dirnames;
 	struct strset dirnames;
-	int ret = -1;
+	int ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
 
 	/*
 	 * For the sake of comments in this function, suppose that
@@ -2517,9 +2580,11 @@ int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
 
 	assert(err);
 
+	strset_init(&conflicting_dirnames);
 	strset_init(&dirnames);
 
 	for_each_string_list_item(item, refnames) {
+		const size_t *update_idx = (size_t *)item->util;
 		const char *refname = item->string;
 		const char *extra_refname;
 		struct object_id oid;
@@ -2557,14 +2622,30 @@ int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
 				continue;
 
 			if (!initial_transaction &&
-			    !refs_read_raw_ref(refs, dirname.buf, &oid, &referent,
-					       &type, &ignore_errno)) {
+			    (strset_contains(&conflicting_dirnames, dirname.buf) ||
+			     !refs_read_raw_ref(refs, dirname.buf, &oid, &referent,
+						       &type, &ignore_errno))) {
+				if (transaction && ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(
+					    transaction, *update_idx,
+					    REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT)) {
+					strset_remove(&dirnames, dirname.buf);
+					strset_add(&conflicting_dirnames, dirname.buf);
+					continue;
+				}
+
 				strbuf_addf(err, _("'%s' exists; cannot create '%s'"),
 					    dirname.buf, refname);
 				goto cleanup;
 			}
 
 			if (extras && string_list_has_string(extras, dirname.buf)) {
+				if (transaction && ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(
+					    transaction, *update_idx,
+					    REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT)) {
+					strset_remove(&dirnames, dirname.buf);
+					continue;
+				}
+
 				strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot process '%s' and '%s' at the same time"),
 					    refname, dirname.buf);
 				goto cleanup;
@@ -2597,6 +2678,11 @@ int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
 				    string_list_has_string(skip, iter->refname))
 					continue;
 
+				if (transaction && ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(
+					    transaction, *update_idx,
+					    REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT))
+					continue;
+
 				strbuf_addf(err, _("'%s' exists; cannot create '%s'"),
 					    iter->refname, refname);
 				goto cleanup;
@@ -2608,6 +2694,11 @@ int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
 
 		extra_refname = find_descendant_ref(dirname.buf, extras, skip);
 		if (extra_refname) {
+			if (transaction && ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(
+				    transaction, *update_idx,
+				    REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT))
+				continue;
+
 			strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot process '%s' and '%s' at the same time"),
 				    refname, extra_refname);
 			goto cleanup;
@@ -2619,17 +2710,19 @@ int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
 cleanup:
 	strbuf_release(&referent);
 	strbuf_release(&dirname);
+	strset_clear(&conflicting_dirnames);
 	strset_clear(&dirnames);
 	ref_iterator_free(iter);
 	return ret;
 }
 
-int refs_verify_refname_available(struct ref_store *refs,
-				  const char *refname,
-				  const struct string_list *extras,
-				  const struct string_list *skip,
-				  unsigned int initial_transaction,
-				  struct strbuf *err)
+enum ref_transaction_error refs_verify_refname_available(
+	struct ref_store *refs,
+	const char *refname,
+	const struct string_list *extras,
+	const struct string_list *skip,
+	unsigned int initial_transaction,
+	struct strbuf *err)
 {
 	struct string_list_item item = { .string = (char *) refname };
 	struct string_list refnames = {
@@ -2638,7 +2731,7 @@ int refs_verify_refname_available(struct ref_store *refs,
 	};
 
 	return refs_verify_refnames_available(refs, &refnames, extras, skip,
-					      initial_transaction, err);
+					      NULL, initial_transaction, err);
 }
 
 struct do_for_each_reflog_help {
@@ -2726,6 +2819,28 @@ void ref_transaction_for_each_queued_update(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 	}
 }
 
+void ref_transaction_for_each_rejected_update(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+					      ref_transaction_for_each_rejected_update_fn cb,
+					      void *cb_data)
+{
+	if (!transaction->rejections)
+		return;
+
+	for (size_t i = 0; i < transaction->rejections->nr; i++) {
+		size_t update_index = transaction->rejections->update_indices[i];
+		struct ref_update *update = transaction->updates[update_index];
+
+		if (!update->rejection_err)
+			continue;
+
+		cb(update->refname,
+		   (update->flags & REF_HAVE_OLD) ? &update->old_oid : NULL,
+		   (update->flags & REF_HAVE_NEW) ? &update->new_oid : NULL,
+		   update->old_target, update->new_target,
+		   update->rejection_err, cb_data);
+	}
+}
+
 int refs_delete_refs(struct ref_store *refs, const char *logmsg,
 		     struct string_list *refnames, unsigned int flags)
 {
@@ -2817,8 +2932,9 @@ int ref_update_has_null_new_value(struct ref_update *update)
 	return !update->new_target && is_null_oid(&update->new_oid);
 }
 
-int ref_update_check_old_target(const char *referent, struct ref_update *update,
-				struct strbuf *err)
+enum ref_transaction_error ref_update_check_old_target(const char *referent,
+						       struct ref_update *update,
+						       struct strbuf *err)
 {
 	if (!update->old_target)
 		BUG("called without old_target set");
@@ -2826,17 +2942,18 @@ int ref_update_check_old_target(const char *referent, struct ref_update *update,
 	if (!strcmp(referent, update->old_target))
 		return 0;
 
-	if (!strcmp(referent, ""))
+	if (!strcmp(referent, "")) {
 		strbuf_addf(err, "verifying symref target: '%s': "
 			    "reference is missing but expected %s",
 			    ref_update_original_update_refname(update),
 			    update->old_target);
-	else
-		strbuf_addf(err, "verifying symref target: '%s': "
-			    "is at %s but expected %s",
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF;
+	}
+
+	strbuf_addf(err, "verifying symref target: '%s': is at %s but expected %s",
 			    ref_update_original_update_refname(update),
 			    referent, update->old_target);
-	return -1;
+	return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INCORRECT_OLD_VALUE;
 }
 
 struct migration_data {
diff --git a/refs.h b/refs.h
index 240e2d8537..46a6008e07 100644
--- a/refs.h
+++ b/refs.h
@@ -16,6 +16,23 @@ struct worktree;
 enum ref_storage_format ref_storage_format_by_name(const char *name);
 const char *ref_storage_format_to_name(enum ref_storage_format ref_storage_format);
 
+enum ref_transaction_error {
+	/* Default error code */
+	REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC = -1,
+	/* Ref name conflict like A vs A/B */
+	REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT = -2,
+	/* Ref to be created already exists */
+	REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_CREATE_EXISTS = -3,
+	/* ref expected but doesn't exist */
+	REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF = -4,
+	/* Provided old_oid or old_target of reference doesn't match actual */
+	REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INCORRECT_OLD_VALUE = -5,
+	/* Provided new_oid or new_target is invalid */
+	REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INVALID_NEW_VALUE = -6,
+	/* Expected ref to be symref, but is a regular ref */
+	REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_EXPECTED_SYMREF = -7,
+};
+
 /*
  * Resolve a reference, recursively following symbolic references.
  *
@@ -117,24 +134,12 @@ int refs_read_symbolic_ref(struct ref_store *ref_store, const char *refname,
  *
  * extras and skip must be sorted.
  */
-int refs_verify_refname_available(struct ref_store *refs,
-				  const char *refname,
-				  const struct string_list *extras,
-				  const struct string_list *skip,
-				  unsigned int initial_transaction,
-				  struct strbuf *err);
-
-/*
- * Same as `refs_verify_refname_available()`, but checking for a list of
- * refnames instead of only a single item. This is more efficient in the case
- * where one needs to check multiple refnames.
- */
-int refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
-				   const struct string_list *refnames,
-				   const struct string_list *extras,
-				   const struct string_list *skip,
-				   unsigned int initial_transaction,
-				   struct strbuf *err);
+enum ref_transaction_error refs_verify_refname_available(struct ref_store *refs,
+						 const char *refname,
+						 const struct string_list *extras,
+						 const struct string_list *skip,
+						 unsigned int initial_transaction,
+						 struct strbuf *err);
 
 int refs_ref_exists(struct ref_store *refs, const char *refname);
 
@@ -650,6 +655,13 @@ enum ref_transaction_flag {
 	 * either be absent or null_oid.
 	 */
 	REF_TRANSACTION_FLAG_INITIAL = (1 << 0),
+
+	/*
+	 * The transaction mechanism by default fails all updates if any conflict
+	 * is detected. This flag allows transactions to partially apply updates
+	 * while rejecting updates which do not match the expected state.
+	 */
+	REF_TRANSACTION_ALLOW_FAILURE = (1 << 1),
 };
 
 /*
@@ -830,13 +842,6 @@ int ref_transaction_verify(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 			   unsigned int flags,
 			   struct strbuf *err);
 
-/* Naming conflict (for example, the ref names A and A/B conflict). */
-#define TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT -1
-/* When only creation was requested, but the ref already exists. */
-#define TRANSACTION_CREATE_EXISTS -2
-/* All other errors. */
-#define TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR -3
-
 /*
  * Perform the preparatory stages of committing `transaction`. Acquire
  * any needed locks, check preconditions, etc.; basically, do as much
@@ -888,6 +893,21 @@ void ref_transaction_for_each_queued_update(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 					    void *cb_data);
 
 /*
+ * Execute the given callback function for each of the reference updates which
+ * have been rejected in the given transaction.
+ */
+typedef void ref_transaction_for_each_rejected_update_fn(const char *refname,
+							 const struct object_id *old_oid,
+							 const struct object_id *new_oid,
+							 const char *old_target,
+							 const char *new_target,
+							 enum ref_transaction_error err,
+							 void *cb_data);
+void ref_transaction_for_each_rejected_update(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+					      ref_transaction_for_each_rejected_update_fn cb,
+					      void *cb_data);
+
+/*
  * Free `*transaction` and all associated data.
  */
 void ref_transaction_free(struct ref_transaction *transaction);
diff --git a/refs/files-backend.c b/refs/files-backend.c
index 91d3aca70a..5057dd02ed 100644
--- a/refs/files-backend.c
+++ b/refs/files-backend.c
@@ -663,7 +663,7 @@ static void unlock_ref(struct ref_lock *lock)
  * broken, lock the reference anyway but clear old_oid.
  *
  * Return 0 on success. On failure, write an error message to err and
- * return TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT or TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR.
+ * return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT or REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC.
  *
  * Implementation note: This function is basically
  *
@@ -676,19 +676,22 @@ static void unlock_ref(struct ref_lock *lock)
  *   avoided, namely if we were successfully able to read the ref
  * - Generate informative error messages in the case of failure
  */
-static int lock_raw_ref(struct files_ref_store *refs,
-			const char *refname, int mustexist,
-			struct string_list *refnames_to_check,
-			const struct string_list *extras,
-			struct ref_lock **lock_p,
-			struct strbuf *referent,
-			unsigned int *type,
-			struct strbuf *err)
-{
+static enum ref_transaction_error lock_raw_ref(struct files_ref_store *refs,
+					       struct ref_update *update,
+					       size_t update_idx,
+					       int mustexist,
+					       struct string_list *refnames_to_check,
+					       const struct string_list *extras,
+					       struct ref_lock **lock_p,
+					       struct strbuf *referent,
+					       struct strbuf *err)
+{
+	enum ref_transaction_error ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
+	const char *refname = update->refname;
+	unsigned int *type = &update->type;
 	struct ref_lock *lock;
 	struct strbuf ref_file = STRBUF_INIT;
 	int attempts_remaining = 3;
-	int ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
 	int failure_errno;
 
 	assert(err);
@@ -728,13 +731,14 @@ retry:
 				strbuf_reset(err);
 				strbuf_addf(err, "unable to resolve reference '%s'",
 					    refname);
+				ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF;
 			} else {
 				/*
 				 * The error message set by
 				 * refs_verify_refname_available() is
 				 * OK.
 				 */
-				ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
+				ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
 			}
 		} else {
 			/*
@@ -783,11 +787,14 @@ retry:
 
 	if (files_read_raw_ref(&refs->base, refname, &lock->old_oid, referent,
 			       type, &failure_errno)) {
+		struct string_list_item *item;
+
 		if (failure_errno == ENOENT) {
 			if (mustexist) {
 				/* Garden variety missing reference. */
 				strbuf_addf(err, "unable to resolve reference '%s'",
 					    refname);
+				ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF;
 				goto error_return;
 			} else {
 				/*
@@ -820,6 +827,7 @@ retry:
 				/* Garden variety missing reference. */
 				strbuf_addf(err, "unable to resolve reference '%s'",
 					    refname);
+				ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF;
 				goto error_return;
 			} else if (remove_dir_recursively(&ref_file,
 							  REMOVE_DIR_EMPTY_ONLY)) {
@@ -830,7 +838,7 @@ retry:
 					 * The error message set by
 					 * verify_refname_available() is OK.
 					 */
-					ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
+					ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
 					goto error_return;
 				} else {
 					/*
@@ -860,7 +868,9 @@ retry:
 		 * make sure there is no existing packed ref that conflicts
 		 * with refname. This check is deferred so that we can batch it.
 		 */
-		string_list_append(refnames_to_check, refname);
+		item = string_list_append(refnames_to_check, refname);
+		item->util = xmalloc(sizeof(update_idx));
+		memcpy(item->util, &update_idx, sizeof(update_idx));
 	}
 
 	ret = 0;
@@ -1517,10 +1527,11 @@ static int rename_tmp_log(struct files_ref_store *refs, const char *newrefname)
 	return ret;
 }
 
-static int write_ref_to_lockfile(struct files_ref_store *refs,
-				 struct ref_lock *lock,
-				 const struct object_id *oid,
-				 int skip_oid_verification, struct strbuf *err);
+static enum ref_transaction_error write_ref_to_lockfile(struct files_ref_store *refs,
+							struct ref_lock *lock,
+							const struct object_id *oid,
+							int skip_oid_verification,
+							struct strbuf *err);
 static int commit_ref_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 			     struct ref_lock *lock,
 			     const struct object_id *oid, const char *logmsg,
@@ -1926,10 +1937,11 @@ static int files_log_ref_write(struct files_ref_store *refs,
  * Write oid into the open lockfile, then close the lockfile. On
  * errors, rollback the lockfile, fill in *err and return -1.
  */
-static int write_ref_to_lockfile(struct files_ref_store *refs,
-				 struct ref_lock *lock,
-				 const struct object_id *oid,
-				 int skip_oid_verification, struct strbuf *err)
+static enum ref_transaction_error write_ref_to_lockfile(struct files_ref_store *refs,
+							struct ref_lock *lock,
+							const struct object_id *oid,
+							int skip_oid_verification,
+							struct strbuf *err)
 {
 	static char term = '\n';
 	struct object *o;
@@ -1943,7 +1955,7 @@ static int write_ref_to_lockfile(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 				"trying to write ref '%s' with nonexistent object %s",
 				lock->ref_name, oid_to_hex(oid));
 			unlock_ref(lock);
-			return -1;
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INVALID_NEW_VALUE;
 		}
 		if (o->type != OBJ_COMMIT && is_branch(lock->ref_name)) {
 			strbuf_addf(
@@ -1951,7 +1963,7 @@ static int write_ref_to_lockfile(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 				"trying to write non-commit object %s to branch '%s'",
 				oid_to_hex(oid), lock->ref_name);
 			unlock_ref(lock);
-			return -1;
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INVALID_NEW_VALUE;
 		}
 	}
 	fd = get_lock_file_fd(&lock->lk);
@@ -1962,7 +1974,7 @@ static int write_ref_to_lockfile(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 		strbuf_addf(err,
 			    "couldn't write '%s'", get_lock_file_path(&lock->lk));
 		unlock_ref(lock);
-		return -1;
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 	}
 	return 0;
 }
@@ -2376,13 +2388,11 @@ static struct ref_iterator *files_reflog_iterator_begin(struct ref_store *ref_st
  * If update is a direct update of head_ref (the reference pointed to
  * by HEAD), then add an extra REF_LOG_ONLY update for HEAD.
  */
-static int split_head_update(struct ref_update *update,
-			     struct ref_transaction *transaction,
-			     const char *head_ref,
-			     struct string_list *affected_refnames,
-			     struct strbuf *err)
+static enum ref_transaction_error split_head_update(struct ref_update *update,
+						    struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+						    const char *head_ref,
+						    struct strbuf *err)
 {
-	struct string_list_item *item;
 	struct ref_update *new_update;
 
 	if ((update->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY) ||
@@ -2399,13 +2409,13 @@ static int split_head_update(struct ref_update *update,
 	 * transaction. This check is O(lg N) in the transaction
 	 * size, but it happens at most once per transaction.
 	 */
-	if (string_list_has_string(affected_refnames, "HEAD")) {
+	if (string_list_has_string(&transaction->refnames, "HEAD")) {
 		/* An entry already existed */
 		strbuf_addf(err,
 			    "multiple updates for 'HEAD' (including one "
 			    "via its referent '%s') are not allowed",
 			    update->refname);
-		return TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
 	}
 
 	new_update = ref_transaction_add_update(
@@ -2421,8 +2431,6 @@ static int split_head_update(struct ref_update *update,
 	 */
 	if (strcmp(new_update->refname, "HEAD"))
 		BUG("%s unexpectedly not 'HEAD'", new_update->refname);
-	item = string_list_insert(affected_refnames, new_update->refname);
-	item->util = new_update;
 
 	return 0;
 }
@@ -2435,13 +2443,11 @@ static int split_head_update(struct ref_update *update,
  * Note that the new update will itself be subject to splitting when
  * the iteration gets to it.
  */
-static int split_symref_update(struct ref_update *update,
-			       const char *referent,
-			       struct ref_transaction *transaction,
-			       struct string_list *affected_refnames,
-			       struct strbuf *err)
+static enum ref_transaction_error split_symref_update(struct ref_update *update,
+						      const char *referent,
+						      struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+						      struct strbuf *err)
 {
-	struct string_list_item *item;
 	struct ref_update *new_update;
 	unsigned int new_flags;
 
@@ -2451,13 +2457,13 @@ static int split_symref_update(struct ref_update *update,
 	 * size, but it happens at most once per symref in a
 	 * transaction.
 	 */
-	if (string_list_has_string(affected_refnames, referent)) {
+	if (string_list_has_string(&transaction->refnames, referent)) {
 		/* An entry already exists */
 		strbuf_addf(err,
 			    "multiple updates for '%s' (including one "
 			    "via symref '%s') are not allowed",
 			    referent, update->refname);
-		return TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
 	}
 
 	new_flags = update->flags;
@@ -2489,19 +2495,6 @@ static int split_symref_update(struct ref_update *update,
 	update->flags |= REF_LOG_ONLY | REF_NO_DEREF;
 	update->flags &= ~REF_HAVE_OLD;
 
-	/*
-	 * Add the referent. This insertion is O(N) in the transaction
-	 * size, but it happens at most once per symref in a
-	 * transaction. Make sure to add new_update->refname, which will
-	 * be valid as long as affected_refnames is in use, and NOT
-	 * referent, which might soon be freed by our caller.
-	 */
-	item = string_list_insert(affected_refnames, new_update->refname);
-	if (item->util)
-		BUG("%s unexpectedly found in affected_refnames",
-		    new_update->refname);
-	item->util = new_update;
-
 	return 0;
 }
 
@@ -2511,11 +2504,10 @@ static int split_symref_update(struct ref_update *update,
  * everything is OK, return 0; otherwise, write an error message to
  * err and return -1.
  */
-static int check_old_oid(struct ref_update *update, struct object_id *oid,
-			 struct strbuf *err)
+static enum ref_transaction_error check_old_oid(struct ref_update *update,
+						struct object_id *oid,
+						struct strbuf *err)
 {
-	int ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
-
 	if (!(update->flags & REF_HAVE_OLD) ||
 		   oideq(oid, &update->old_oid))
 		return 0;
@@ -2524,21 +2516,20 @@ static int check_old_oid(struct ref_update *update, struct object_id *oid,
 		strbuf_addf(err, "cannot lock ref '%s': "
 			    "reference already exists",
 			    ref_update_original_update_refname(update));
-		ret = TRANSACTION_CREATE_EXISTS;
-	}
-	else if (is_null_oid(oid))
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_CREATE_EXISTS;
+	} else if (is_null_oid(oid)) {
 		strbuf_addf(err, "cannot lock ref '%s': "
 			    "reference is missing but expected %s",
 			    ref_update_original_update_refname(update),
 			    oid_to_hex(&update->old_oid));
-	else
-		strbuf_addf(err, "cannot lock ref '%s': "
-			    "is at %s but expected %s",
-			    ref_update_original_update_refname(update),
-			    oid_to_hex(oid),
-			    oid_to_hex(&update->old_oid));
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF;
+	}
 
-	return ret;
+	strbuf_addf(err, "cannot lock ref '%s': is at %s but expected %s",
+		    ref_update_original_update_refname(update), oid_to_hex(oid),
+		    oid_to_hex(&update->old_oid));
+
+	return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INCORRECT_OLD_VALUE;
 }
 
 struct files_transaction_backend_data {
@@ -2560,18 +2551,18 @@ struct files_transaction_backend_data {
  * - If it is an update of head_ref, add a corresponding REF_LOG_ONLY
  *   update of HEAD.
  */
-static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
-			       struct ref_update *update,
-			       struct ref_transaction *transaction,
-			       const char *head_ref,
-			       struct string_list *refnames_to_check,
-			       struct string_list *affected_refnames,
-			       struct strbuf *err)
+static enum ref_transaction_error lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
+						      struct ref_update *update,
+						      size_t update_idx,
+						      struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+						      const char *head_ref,
+						      struct string_list *refnames_to_check,
+						      struct strbuf *err)
 {
 	struct strbuf referent = STRBUF_INIT;
 	int mustexist = ref_update_expects_existing_old_ref(update);
 	struct files_transaction_backend_data *backend_data;
-	int ret = 0;
+	enum ref_transaction_error ret = 0;
 	struct ref_lock *lock;
 
 	files_assert_main_repository(refs, "lock_ref_for_update");
@@ -2582,8 +2573,7 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 		update->flags |= REF_DELETING;
 
 	if (head_ref) {
-		ret = split_head_update(update, transaction, head_ref,
-					affected_refnames, err);
+		ret = split_head_update(update, transaction, head_ref, err);
 		if (ret)
 			goto out;
 	}
@@ -2592,10 +2582,9 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 	if (lock) {
 		lock->count++;
 	} else {
-		ret = lock_raw_ref(refs, update->refname, mustexist,
-				   refnames_to_check, affected_refnames,
-				   &lock, &referent,
-				   &update->type, err);
+		ret = lock_raw_ref(refs, update, update_idx, mustexist,
+				   refnames_to_check, &transaction->refnames,
+				   &lock, &referent, err);
 		if (ret) {
 			char *reason;
 
@@ -2625,22 +2614,17 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 					strbuf_addf(err, "cannot lock ref '%s': "
 						    "error reading reference",
 						    ref_update_original_update_refname(update));
-					ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+					ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 					goto out;
 				}
 			}
 
-			if (update->old_target) {
-				if (ref_update_check_old_target(referent.buf, update, err)) {
-					ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
-					goto out;
-				}
-			} else {
+			if (update->old_target)
+				ret = ref_update_check_old_target(referent.buf, update, err);
+			else
 				ret = check_old_oid(update, &lock->old_oid, err);
-				if  (ret) {
-					goto out;
-				}
-			}
+			if (ret)
+				goto out;
 		} else {
 			/*
 			 * Create a new update for the reference this
@@ -2649,9 +2633,8 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 			 * of processing the split-off update, so we
 			 * don't have to do it here.
 			 */
-			ret = split_symref_update(update,
-						  referent.buf, transaction,
-						  affected_refnames, err);
+			ret = split_symref_update(update, referent.buf,
+						  transaction, err);
 			if (ret)
 				goto out;
 		}
@@ -2668,7 +2651,7 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 					   "but is a regular ref"),
 				    ref_update_original_update_refname(update),
 				    update->old_target);
-			ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+			ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_EXPECTED_SYMREF;
 			goto out;
 		} else {
 			ret = check_old_oid(update, &lock->old_oid, err);
@@ -2692,14 +2675,14 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 
 	if (update->new_target && !(update->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY)) {
 		if (create_symref_lock(lock, update->new_target, err)) {
-			ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+			ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 			goto out;
 		}
 
 		if (close_ref_gently(lock)) {
 			strbuf_addf(err, "couldn't close '%s.lock'",
 				    update->refname);
-			ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+			ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 			goto out;
 		}
 
@@ -2717,25 +2700,27 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 			 * The reference already has the desired
 			 * value, so we don't need to write it.
 			 */
-		} else if (write_ref_to_lockfile(
-				   refs, lock, &update->new_oid,
-				   update->flags & REF_SKIP_OID_VERIFICATION,
-				   err)) {
-			char *write_err = strbuf_detach(err, NULL);
-
-			/*
-			 * The lock was freed upon failure of
-			 * write_ref_to_lockfile():
-			 */
-			update->backend_data = NULL;
-			strbuf_addf(err,
-				    "cannot update ref '%s': %s",
-				    update->refname, write_err);
-			free(write_err);
-			ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
-			goto out;
 		} else {
-			update->flags |= REF_NEEDS_COMMIT;
+			ret = write_ref_to_lockfile(
+				refs, lock, &update->new_oid,
+				update->flags & REF_SKIP_OID_VERIFICATION,
+				err);
+			if (ret) {
+				char *write_err = strbuf_detach(err, NULL);
+
+				/*
+				 * The lock was freed upon failure of
+				 * write_ref_to_lockfile():
+				 */
+				update->backend_data = NULL;
+				strbuf_addf(err,
+					    "cannot update ref '%s': %s",
+					    update->refname, write_err);
+				free(write_err);
+				goto out;
+			} else {
+				update->flags |= REF_NEEDS_COMMIT;
+			}
 		}
 	}
 	if (!(update->flags & REF_NEEDS_COMMIT)) {
@@ -2747,7 +2732,7 @@ static int lock_ref_for_update(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 		if (close_ref_gently(lock)) {
 			strbuf_addf(err, "couldn't close '%s.lock'",
 				    update->refname);
-			ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+			ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 			goto out;
 		}
 	}
@@ -2806,7 +2791,6 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 			       "ref_transaction_prepare");
 	size_t i;
 	int ret = 0;
-	struct string_list affected_refnames = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
 	struct string_list refnames_to_check = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
 	char *head_ref = NULL;
 	int head_type;
@@ -2825,36 +2809,14 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	transaction->backend_data = backend_data;
 
 	/*
-	 * Fail if a refname appears more than once in the
-	 * transaction. (If we end up splitting up any updates using
-	 * split_symref_update() or split_head_update(), those
-	 * functions will check that the new updates don't have the
-	 * same refname as any existing ones.) Also fail if any of the
-	 * updates use REF_IS_PRUNING without REF_NO_DEREF.
+	 * Fail if any of the updates use REF_IS_PRUNING without REF_NO_DEREF.
 	 */
 	for (i = 0; i < transaction->nr; i++) {
 		struct ref_update *update = transaction->updates[i];
-		struct string_list_item *item;
 
 		if ((update->flags & REF_IS_PRUNING) &&
 		    !(update->flags & REF_NO_DEREF))
 			BUG("REF_IS_PRUNING set without REF_NO_DEREF");
-
-		if (update->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY)
-			continue;
-
-		item = string_list_append(&affected_refnames, update->refname);
-		/*
-		 * We store a pointer to update in item->util, but at
-		 * the moment we never use the value of this field
-		 * except to check whether it is non-NULL.
-		 */
-		item->util = update;
-	}
-	string_list_sort(&affected_refnames);
-	if (ref_update_reject_duplicates(&affected_refnames, err)) {
-		ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
-		goto cleanup;
 	}
 
 	/*
@@ -2894,11 +2856,18 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	for (i = 0; i < transaction->nr; i++) {
 		struct ref_update *update = transaction->updates[i];
 
-		ret = lock_ref_for_update(refs, update, transaction,
+		ret = lock_ref_for_update(refs, update, i, transaction,
 					  head_ref, &refnames_to_check,
-					  &affected_refnames, err);
-		if (ret)
+					  err);
+		if (ret) {
+			if (ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(transaction, i, ret)) {
+				strbuf_reset(err);
+				ret = 0;
+
+				continue;
+			}
 			goto cleanup;
+		}
 
 		if (update->flags & REF_DELETING &&
 		    !(update->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY) &&
@@ -2912,7 +2881,7 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 						refs->packed_ref_store,
 						transaction->flags, err);
 				if (!packed_transaction) {
-					ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+					ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 					goto cleanup;
 				}
 
@@ -2943,14 +2912,15 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	 * So instead, we accept the race for now.
 	 */
 	if (refs_verify_refnames_available(refs->packed_ref_store, &refnames_to_check,
-					   &affected_refnames, NULL, 0, err)) {
-		ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
+					   &transaction->refnames, NULL, transaction,
+					   0, err)) {
+		ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
 		goto cleanup;
 	}
 
 	if (packed_transaction) {
 		if (packed_refs_lock(refs->packed_ref_store, 0, err)) {
-			ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+			ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 			goto cleanup;
 		}
 		backend_data->packed_refs_locked = 1;
@@ -2981,7 +2951,7 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 			 */
 			backend_data->packed_transaction = NULL;
 			if (ref_transaction_abort(packed_transaction, err)) {
-				ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+				ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 				goto cleanup;
 			}
 		}
@@ -2989,8 +2959,7 @@ static int files_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 
 cleanup:
 	free(head_ref);
-	string_list_clear(&affected_refnames, 0);
-	string_list_clear(&refnames_to_check, 0);
+	string_list_clear(&refnames_to_check, 1);
 
 	if (ret)
 		files_transaction_cleanup(refs, transaction);
@@ -3064,17 +3033,6 @@ static int files_transaction_finish_initial(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 	if (transaction->state != REF_TRANSACTION_PREPARED)
 		BUG("commit called for transaction that is not prepared");
 
-	/* Fail if a refname appears more than once in the transaction: */
-	for (i = 0; i < transaction->nr; i++)
-		if (!(transaction->updates[i]->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY))
-			string_list_append(&affected_refnames,
-					   transaction->updates[i]->refname);
-	string_list_sort(&affected_refnames);
-	if (ref_update_reject_duplicates(&affected_refnames, err)) {
-		ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
-		goto cleanup;
-	}
-
 	/*
 	 * It's really undefined to call this function in an active
 	 * repository or when there are existing references: we are
@@ -3088,13 +3046,13 @@ static int files_transaction_finish_initial(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 	 * that we are creating already exists.
 	 */
 	if (refs_for_each_rawref(&refs->base, ref_present,
-				 &affected_refnames))
+				 &transaction->refnames))
 		BUG("initial ref transaction called with existing refs");
 
 	packed_transaction = ref_store_transaction_begin(refs->packed_ref_store,
 							 transaction->flags, err);
 	if (!packed_transaction) {
-		ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+		ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 		goto cleanup;
 	}
 
@@ -3117,7 +3075,7 @@ static int files_transaction_finish_initial(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 			if (!loose_transaction) {
 				loose_transaction = ref_store_transaction_begin(&refs->base, 0, err);
 				if (!loose_transaction) {
-					ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+					ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 					goto cleanup;
 				}
 			}
@@ -3142,19 +3100,20 @@ static int files_transaction_finish_initial(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 	}
 
 	if (packed_refs_lock(refs->packed_ref_store, 0, err)) {
-		ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+		ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 		goto cleanup;
 	}
 
 	if (refs_verify_refnames_available(&refs->base, &refnames_to_check,
-					   &affected_refnames, NULL, 1, err)) {
+					   &affected_refnames, NULL, transaction,
+					   1, err)) {
 		packed_refs_unlock(refs->packed_ref_store);
-		ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
+		ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
 		goto cleanup;
 	}
 
 	if (ref_transaction_commit(packed_transaction, err)) {
-		ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+		ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 		goto cleanup;
 	}
 	packed_refs_unlock(refs->packed_ref_store);
@@ -3162,7 +3121,7 @@ static int files_transaction_finish_initial(struct files_ref_store *refs,
 	if (loose_transaction) {
 		if (ref_transaction_prepare(loose_transaction, err) ||
 		    ref_transaction_commit(loose_transaction, err)) {
-			ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+			ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 			goto cleanup;
 		}
 	}
@@ -3208,10 +3167,13 @@ static int files_transaction_finish(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 		struct ref_update *update = transaction->updates[i];
 		struct ref_lock *lock = update->backend_data;
 
+		if (update->rejection_err)
+			continue;
+
 		if (update->flags & REF_NEEDS_COMMIT ||
 		    update->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY) {
 			if (parse_and_write_reflog(refs, update, lock, err)) {
-				ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+				ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 				goto cleanup;
 			}
 		}
@@ -3230,7 +3192,7 @@ static int files_transaction_finish(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 				strbuf_addf(err, "couldn't set '%s'", lock->ref_name);
 				unlock_ref(lock);
 				update->backend_data = NULL;
-				ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+				ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 				goto cleanup;
 			}
 		}
@@ -3286,7 +3248,7 @@ static int files_transaction_finish(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 				strbuf_reset(&sb);
 				files_ref_path(refs, &sb, lock->ref_name);
 				if (unlink_or_msg(sb.buf, err)) {
-					ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+					ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 					goto cleanup;
 				}
 			}
diff --git a/refs/packed-backend.c b/refs/packed-backend.c
index b4289a7d9c..94fb655b72 100644
--- a/refs/packed-backend.c
+++ b/refs/packed-backend.c
@@ -1351,10 +1351,12 @@ static int packed_ref_store_remove_on_disk(struct ref_store *ref_store,
  * The packfile must be locked before calling this function and will
  * remain locked when it is done.
  */
-static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
-			      struct string_list *updates,
-			      struct strbuf *err)
+static enum ref_transaction_error write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
+						     struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+						     struct strbuf *err)
 {
+	enum ref_transaction_error ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
+	struct string_list *updates = &transaction->refnames;
 	struct ref_iterator *iter = NULL;
 	size_t i;
 	int ok;
@@ -1378,7 +1380,7 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 		strbuf_addf(err, "unable to create file %s: %s",
 			    sb.buf, strerror(errno));
 		strbuf_release(&sb);
-		return -1;
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 	}
 	strbuf_release(&sb);
 
@@ -1434,6 +1436,14 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 					strbuf_addf(err, "cannot update ref '%s': "
 						    "reference already exists",
 						    update->refname);
+					ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_CREATE_EXISTS;
+
+					if (ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(transaction, i, ret)) {
+						strbuf_reset(err);
+						ret = 0;
+						continue;
+					}
+
 					goto error;
 				} else if (!oideq(&update->old_oid, iter->oid)) {
 					strbuf_addf(err, "cannot update ref '%s': "
@@ -1441,6 +1451,14 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 						    update->refname,
 						    oid_to_hex(iter->oid),
 						    oid_to_hex(&update->old_oid));
+					ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INCORRECT_OLD_VALUE;
+
+					if (ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(transaction, i, ret)) {
+						strbuf_reset(err);
+						ret = 0;
+						continue;
+					}
+
 					goto error;
 				}
 			}
@@ -1477,6 +1495,14 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 					    "reference is missing but expected %s",
 					    update->refname,
 					    oid_to_hex(&update->old_oid));
+				ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF;
+
+				if (ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(transaction, i, ret)) {
+					strbuf_reset(err);
+					ret = 0;
+					continue;
+				}
+
 				goto error;
 			}
 		}
@@ -1534,7 +1560,7 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 			    strerror(errno));
 		strbuf_release(&sb);
 		delete_tempfile(&refs->tempfile);
-		return -1;
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 	}
 
 	return 0;
@@ -1542,11 +1568,12 @@ static int write_with_updates(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 write_error:
 	strbuf_addf(err, "error writing to %s: %s",
 		    get_tempfile_path(refs->tempfile), strerror(errno));
+	ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 
 error:
 	ref_iterator_free(iter);
 	delete_tempfile(&refs->tempfile);
-	return -1;
+	return ret;
 }
 
 int is_packed_transaction_needed(struct ref_store *ref_store,
@@ -1647,8 +1674,6 @@ int is_packed_transaction_needed(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 struct packed_transaction_backend_data {
 	/* True iff the transaction owns the packed-refs lock. */
 	int own_lock;
-
-	struct string_list updates;
 };
 
 static void packed_transaction_cleanup(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
@@ -1657,8 +1682,6 @@ static void packed_transaction_cleanup(struct packed_ref_store *refs,
 	struct packed_transaction_backend_data *data = transaction->backend_data;
 
 	if (data) {
-		string_list_clear(&data->updates, 0);
-
 		if (is_tempfile_active(refs->tempfile))
 			delete_tempfile(&refs->tempfile);
 
@@ -1683,8 +1706,7 @@ static int packed_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 			REF_STORE_READ | REF_STORE_WRITE | REF_STORE_ODB,
 			"ref_transaction_prepare");
 	struct packed_transaction_backend_data *data;
-	size_t i;
-	int ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+	enum ref_transaction_error ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 
 	/*
 	 * Note that we *don't* skip transactions with zero updates,
@@ -1696,34 +1718,17 @@ static int packed_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	 */
 
 	CALLOC_ARRAY(data, 1);
-	string_list_init_nodup(&data->updates);
 
 	transaction->backend_data = data;
 
-	/*
-	 * Stick the updates in a string list by refname so that we
-	 * can sort them:
-	 */
-	for (i = 0; i < transaction->nr; i++) {
-		struct ref_update *update = transaction->updates[i];
-		struct string_list_item *item =
-			string_list_append(&data->updates, update->refname);
-
-		/* Store a pointer to update in item->util: */
-		item->util = update;
-	}
-	string_list_sort(&data->updates);
-
-	if (ref_update_reject_duplicates(&data->updates, err))
-		goto failure;
-
 	if (!is_lock_file_locked(&refs->lock)) {
 		if (packed_refs_lock(ref_store, 0, err))
 			goto failure;
 		data->own_lock = 1;
 	}
 
-	if (write_with_updates(refs, &data->updates, err))
+	ret = write_with_updates(refs, transaction, err);
+	if (ret)
 		goto failure;
 
 	transaction->state = REF_TRANSACTION_PREPARED;
@@ -1755,7 +1760,7 @@ static int packed_transaction_finish(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 			ref_store,
 			REF_STORE_READ | REF_STORE_WRITE | REF_STORE_ODB,
 			"ref_transaction_finish");
-	int ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
+	int ret = REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
 	char *packed_refs_path;
 
 	clear_snapshot(refs);
diff --git a/refs/refs-internal.h b/refs/refs-internal.h
index e5862757a7..f868870851 100644
--- a/refs/refs-internal.h
+++ b/refs/refs-internal.h
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 #include "refs.h"
 #include "iterator.h"
+#include "string-list.h"
 
 struct fsck_options;
 struct ref_transaction;
@@ -123,6 +124,12 @@ struct ref_update {
 	uint64_t index;
 
 	/*
+	 * Used in batched reference updates to mark if a given update
+	 * was rejected.
+	 */
+	enum ref_transaction_error rejection_err;
+
+	/*
 	 * If this ref_update was split off of a symref update via
 	 * split_symref_update(), then this member points at that
 	 * update. This is used for two purposes:
@@ -142,12 +149,11 @@ int refs_read_raw_ref(struct ref_store *ref_store, const char *refname,
 		      unsigned int *type, int *failure_errno);
 
 /*
- * Write an error to `err` and return a nonzero value iff the same
- * refname appears multiple times in `refnames`. `refnames` must be
- * sorted on entry to this function.
+ * Mark a given update as rejected with a given reason.
  */
-int ref_update_reject_duplicates(struct string_list *refnames,
-				 struct strbuf *err);
+int ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+				       size_t update_idx,
+				       enum ref_transaction_error err);
 
 /*
  * Add a ref_update with the specified properties to transaction, and
@@ -191,6 +197,18 @@ enum ref_transaction_state {
 };
 
 /*
+ * Data structure to hold indices of updates which were rejected, for batched
+ * reference updates. While the updates themselves hold the rejection error,
+ * this structure allows a transaction to iterate only over the rejected
+ * updates.
+ */
+struct ref_transaction_rejections {
+	size_t *update_indices;
+	size_t alloc;
+	size_t nr;
+};
+
+/*
  * Data structure for holding a reference transaction, which can
  * consist of checks and updates to multiple references, carried out
  * as atomically as possible.  This structure is opaque to callers.
@@ -198,9 +216,11 @@ enum ref_transaction_state {
 struct ref_transaction {
 	struct ref_store *ref_store;
 	struct ref_update **updates;
+	struct string_list refnames;
 	size_t alloc;
 	size_t nr;
 	enum ref_transaction_state state;
+	struct ref_transaction_rejections *rejections;
 	void *backend_data;
 	unsigned int flags;
 	uint64_t max_index;
@@ -776,8 +796,9 @@ int ref_update_has_null_new_value(struct ref_update *update);
  * If everything is OK, return 0; otherwise, write an error message to
  * err and return -1.
  */
-int ref_update_check_old_target(const char *referent, struct ref_update *update,
-				struct strbuf *err);
+enum ref_transaction_error ref_update_check_old_target(const char *referent,
+						       struct ref_update *update,
+						       struct strbuf *err);
 
 /*
  * Check if the ref must exist, this means that the old_oid or
@@ -785,4 +806,20 @@ int ref_update_check_old_target(const char *referent, struct ref_update *update,
  */
 int ref_update_expects_existing_old_ref(struct ref_update *update);
 
+/*
+ * Same as `refs_verify_refname_available()`, but checking for a list of
+ * refnames instead of only a single item. This is more efficient in the case
+ * where one needs to check multiple refnames.
+ *
+ * If using batched updates, then individual updates are marked rejected,
+ * reference backends are then in charge of not committing those updates.
+ */
+enum ref_transaction_error refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs,
+					  const struct string_list *refnames,
+					  const struct string_list *extras,
+					  const struct string_list *skip,
+					  struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+					  unsigned int initial_transaction,
+					  struct strbuf *err);
+
 #endif /* REFS_REFS_INTERNAL_H */
diff --git a/refs/reftable-backend.c b/refs/reftable-backend.c
index ae434cd248..4c3817f4ec 100644
--- a/refs/reftable-backend.c
+++ b/refs/reftable-backend.c
@@ -1069,6 +1069,244 @@ static int queue_transaction_update(struct reftable_ref_store *refs,
 	return 0;
 }
 
+static enum ref_transaction_error prepare_single_update(struct reftable_ref_store *refs,
+							struct reftable_transaction_data *tx_data,
+							struct ref_transaction *transaction,
+							struct reftable_backend *be,
+							struct ref_update *u,
+							size_t update_idx,
+							struct string_list *refnames_to_check,
+							unsigned int head_type,
+							struct strbuf *head_referent,
+							struct strbuf *referent,
+							struct strbuf *err)
+{
+	enum ref_transaction_error ret = 0;
+	struct object_id current_oid = {0};
+	const char *rewritten_ref;
+
+	/*
+	 * There is no need to reload the respective backends here as
+	 * we have already reloaded them when preparing the transaction
+	 * update. And given that the stacks have been locked there
+	 * shouldn't have been any concurrent modifications of the
+	 * stack.
+	 */
+	ret = backend_for(&be, refs, u->refname, &rewritten_ref, 0);
+	if (ret)
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
+
+	/* Verify that the new object ID is valid. */
+	if ((u->flags & REF_HAVE_NEW) && !is_null_oid(&u->new_oid) &&
+	    !(u->flags & REF_SKIP_OID_VERIFICATION) &&
+	    !(u->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY)) {
+		struct object *o = parse_object(refs->base.repo, &u->new_oid);
+		if (!o) {
+			strbuf_addf(err,
+				    _("trying to write ref '%s' with nonexistent object %s"),
+				    u->refname, oid_to_hex(&u->new_oid));
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INVALID_NEW_VALUE;
+		}
+
+		if (o->type != OBJ_COMMIT && is_branch(u->refname)) {
+			strbuf_addf(err, _("trying to write non-commit object %s to branch '%s'"),
+				    oid_to_hex(&u->new_oid), u->refname);
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INVALID_NEW_VALUE;
+		}
+	}
+
+	/*
+	 * When we update the reference that HEAD points to we enqueue
+	 * a second log-only update for HEAD so that its reflog is
+	 * updated accordingly.
+	 */
+	if (head_type == REF_ISSYMREF &&
+	    !(u->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY) &&
+	    !(u->flags & REF_UPDATE_VIA_HEAD) &&
+	    !strcmp(rewritten_ref, head_referent->buf)) {
+		/*
+		 * First make sure that HEAD is not already in the
+		 * transaction. This check is O(lg N) in the transaction
+		 * size, but it happens at most once per transaction.
+		 */
+		if (string_list_has_string(&transaction->refnames, "HEAD")) {
+			/* An entry already existed */
+			strbuf_addf(err,
+				    _("multiple updates for 'HEAD' (including one "
+				      "via its referent '%s') are not allowed"),
+				    u->refname);
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
+		}
+
+		ref_transaction_add_update(
+			transaction, "HEAD",
+			u->flags | REF_LOG_ONLY | REF_NO_DEREF,
+			&u->new_oid, &u->old_oid, NULL, NULL, NULL,
+			u->msg);
+	}
+
+	ret = reftable_backend_read_ref(be, rewritten_ref,
+					&current_oid, referent, &u->type);
+	if (ret < 0)
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
+	if (ret > 0 && !ref_update_expects_existing_old_ref(u)) {
+		struct string_list_item *item;
+		/*
+		 * The reference does not exist, and we either have no
+		 * old object ID or expect the reference to not exist.
+		 * We can thus skip below safety checks as well as the
+		 * symref splitting. But we do want to verify that
+		 * there is no conflicting reference here so that we
+		 * can output a proper error message instead of failing
+		 * at a later point.
+		 */
+		item = string_list_append(refnames_to_check, u->refname);
+		item->util = xmalloc(sizeof(update_idx));
+		memcpy(item->util, &update_idx, sizeof(update_idx));
+
+		/*
+		 * There is no need to write the reference deletion
+		 * when the reference in question doesn't exist.
+		 */
+		if ((u->flags & REF_HAVE_NEW) && !ref_update_has_null_new_value(u)) {
+			ret = queue_transaction_update(refs, tx_data, u,
+						       &current_oid, err);
+			if (ret)
+				return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
+		}
+
+		return 0;
+	}
+	if (ret > 0) {
+		/* The reference does not exist, but we expected it to. */
+		strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
+
+
+				   "unable to resolve reference '%s'"),
+			    ref_update_original_update_refname(u), u->refname);
+		return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF;
+	}
+
+	if (u->type & REF_ISSYMREF) {
+		/*
+		 * The reftable stack is locked at this point already,
+		 * so it is safe to call `refs_resolve_ref_unsafe()`
+		 * here without causing races.
+		 */
+		const char *resolved = refs_resolve_ref_unsafe(&refs->base, u->refname, 0,
+							       &current_oid, NULL);
+
+		if (u->flags & REF_NO_DEREF) {
+			if (u->flags & REF_HAVE_OLD && !resolved) {
+				strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
+						   "error reading reference"), u->refname);
+				return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
+			}
+		} else {
+			struct ref_update *new_update;
+			int new_flags;
+
+			new_flags = u->flags;
+			if (!strcmp(rewritten_ref, "HEAD"))
+				new_flags |= REF_UPDATE_VIA_HEAD;
+
+			if (string_list_has_string(&transaction->refnames, referent->buf)) {
+				strbuf_addf(err,
+					    _("multiple updates for '%s' (including one "
+					      "via symref '%s') are not allowed"),
+					    referent->buf, u->refname);
+				return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NAME_CONFLICT;
+			}
+
+			/*
+			 * If we are updating a symref (eg. HEAD), we should also
+			 * update the branch that the symref points to.
+			 *
+			 * This is generic functionality, and would be better
+			 * done in refs.c, but the current implementation is
+			 * intertwined with the locking in files-backend.c.
+			 */
+			new_update = ref_transaction_add_update(
+				transaction, referent->buf, new_flags,
+				u->new_target ? NULL : &u->new_oid,
+				u->old_target ? NULL : &u->old_oid,
+				u->new_target, u->old_target,
+				u->committer_info, u->msg);
+
+			new_update->parent_update = u;
+
+			/*
+			 * Change the symbolic ref update to log only. Also, it
+			 * doesn't need to check its old OID value, as that will be
+			 * done when new_update is processed.
+			 */
+			u->flags |= REF_LOG_ONLY | REF_NO_DEREF;
+			u->flags &= ~REF_HAVE_OLD;
+		}
+	}
+
+	/*
+	 * Verify that the old object matches our expectations. Note
+	 * that the error messages here do not make a lot of sense in
+	 * the context of the reftable backend as we never lock
+	 * individual refs. But the error messages match what the files
+	 * backend returns, which keeps our tests happy.
+	 */
+	if (u->old_target) {
+		if (!(u->type & REF_ISSYMREF)) {
+			strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
+					   "expected symref with target '%s': "
+					   "but is a regular ref"),
+				    ref_update_original_update_refname(u),
+				    u->old_target);
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_EXPECTED_SYMREF;
+		}
+
+		ret = ref_update_check_old_target(referent->buf, u, err);
+		if (ret)
+			return ret;
+	} else if ((u->flags & REF_HAVE_OLD) && !oideq(&current_oid, &u->old_oid)) {
+		if (is_null_oid(&u->old_oid)) {
+			strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
+					   "reference already exists"),
+				    ref_update_original_update_refname(u));
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_CREATE_EXISTS;
+		} else if (is_null_oid(&current_oid)) {
+			strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
+					   "reference is missing but expected %s"),
+				    ref_update_original_update_refname(u),
+				    oid_to_hex(&u->old_oid));
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_NONEXISTENT_REF;
+		} else {
+			strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
+					   "is at %s but expected %s"),
+				    ref_update_original_update_refname(u),
+				    oid_to_hex(&current_oid),
+				    oid_to_hex(&u->old_oid));
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_INCORRECT_OLD_VALUE;
+		}
+	}
+
+	/*
+	 * If all of the following conditions are true:
+	 *
+	 *   - We're not about to write a symref.
+	 *   - We're not about to write a log-only entry.
+	 *   - Old and new object ID are different.
+	 *
+	 * Then we're essentially doing a no-op update that can be
+	 * skipped. This is not only for the sake of efficiency, but
+	 * also skips writing unneeded reflog entries.
+	 */
+	if ((u->type & REF_ISSYMREF) ||
+	    (u->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY) ||
+	    (u->flags & REF_HAVE_NEW && !oideq(&current_oid, &u->new_oid)))
+		if (queue_transaction_update(refs, tx_data, u, &current_oid, err))
+			return REF_TRANSACTION_ERROR_GENERIC;
+
+	return 0;
+}
+
 static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 					   struct ref_transaction *transaction,
 					   struct strbuf *err)
@@ -1076,7 +1314,6 @@ static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	struct reftable_ref_store *refs =
 		reftable_be_downcast(ref_store, REF_STORE_WRITE|REF_STORE_MAIN, "ref_transaction_prepare");
 	struct strbuf referent = STRBUF_INIT, head_referent = STRBUF_INIT;
-	struct string_list affected_refnames = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
 	struct string_list refnames_to_check = STRING_LIST_INIT_NODUP;
 	struct reftable_transaction_data *tx_data = NULL;
 	struct reftable_backend *be;
@@ -1101,10 +1338,6 @@ static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 						 transaction->updates[i], err);
 		if (ret)
 			goto done;
-
-		if (!(transaction->updates[i]->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY))
-			string_list_append(&affected_refnames,
-					   transaction->updates[i]->refname);
 	}
 
 	/*
@@ -1117,17 +1350,6 @@ static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	}
 
 	/*
-	 * Fail if a refname appears more than once in the transaction.
-	 * This code is taken from the files backend and is a good candidate to
-	 * be moved into the generic layer.
-	 */
-	string_list_sort(&affected_refnames);
-	if (ref_update_reject_duplicates(&affected_refnames, err)) {
-		ret = TRANSACTION_GENERIC_ERROR;
-		goto done;
-	}
-
-	/*
 	 * TODO: it's dubious whether we should reload the stack that "HEAD"
 	 * belongs to or not. In theory, it may happen that we only modify
 	 * stacks which are _not_ part of the "HEAD" stack. In that case we
@@ -1149,241 +1371,24 @@ static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	ret = 0;
 
 	for (i = 0; i < transaction->nr; i++) {
-		struct ref_update *u = transaction->updates[i];
-		struct object_id current_oid = {0};
-		const char *rewritten_ref;
-
-		/*
-		 * There is no need to reload the respective backends here as
-		 * we have already reloaded them when preparing the transaction
-		 * update. And given that the stacks have been locked there
-		 * shouldn't have been any concurrent modifications of the
-		 * stack.
-		 */
-		ret = backend_for(&be, refs, u->refname, &rewritten_ref, 0);
-		if (ret)
-			goto done;
-
-		/* Verify that the new object ID is valid. */
-		if ((u->flags & REF_HAVE_NEW) && !is_null_oid(&u->new_oid) &&
-		    !(u->flags & REF_SKIP_OID_VERIFICATION) &&
-		    !(u->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY)) {
-			struct object *o = parse_object(refs->base.repo, &u->new_oid);
-			if (!o) {
-				strbuf_addf(err,
-					    _("trying to write ref '%s' with nonexistent object %s"),
-					    u->refname, oid_to_hex(&u->new_oid));
-				ret = -1;
-				goto done;
-			}
-
-			if (o->type != OBJ_COMMIT && is_branch(u->refname)) {
-				strbuf_addf(err, _("trying to write non-commit object %s to branch '%s'"),
-					    oid_to_hex(&u->new_oid), u->refname);
-				ret = -1;
-				goto done;
-			}
-		}
-
-		/*
-		 * When we update the reference that HEAD points to we enqueue
-		 * a second log-only update for HEAD so that its reflog is
-		 * updated accordingly.
-		 */
-		if (head_type == REF_ISSYMREF &&
-		    !(u->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY) &&
-		    !(u->flags & REF_UPDATE_VIA_HEAD) &&
-		    !strcmp(rewritten_ref, head_referent.buf)) {
-			struct ref_update *new_update;
-
-			/*
-			 * First make sure that HEAD is not already in the
-			 * transaction. This check is O(lg N) in the transaction
-			 * size, but it happens at most once per transaction.
-			 */
-			if (string_list_has_string(&affected_refnames, "HEAD")) {
-				/* An entry already existed */
-				strbuf_addf(err,
-					    _("multiple updates for 'HEAD' (including one "
-					    "via its referent '%s') are not allowed"),
-					    u->refname);
-				ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
-				goto done;
-			}
-
-			new_update = ref_transaction_add_update(
-					transaction, "HEAD",
-					u->flags | REF_LOG_ONLY | REF_NO_DEREF,
-					&u->new_oid, &u->old_oid, NULL, NULL, NULL,
-					u->msg);
-			string_list_insert(&affected_refnames, new_update->refname);
-		}
-
-		ret = reftable_backend_read_ref(be, rewritten_ref,
-						&current_oid, &referent, &u->type);
-		if (ret < 0)
-			goto done;
-		if (ret > 0 && !ref_update_expects_existing_old_ref(u)) {
-			/*
-			 * The reference does not exist, and we either have no
-			 * old object ID or expect the reference to not exist.
-			 * We can thus skip below safety checks as well as the
-			 * symref splitting. But we do want to verify that
-			 * there is no conflicting reference here so that we
-			 * can output a proper error message instead of failing
-			 * at a later point.
-			 */
-			string_list_append(&refnames_to_check, u->refname);
-
-			/*
-			 * There is no need to write the reference deletion
-			 * when the reference in question doesn't exist.
-			 */
-			 if ((u->flags & REF_HAVE_NEW) && !ref_update_has_null_new_value(u)) {
-				 ret = queue_transaction_update(refs, tx_data, u,
-								&current_oid, err);
-				 if (ret)
-					 goto done;
-			 }
-
-			continue;
-		}
-		if (ret > 0) {
-			/* The reference does not exist, but we expected it to. */
-			strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
-				    "unable to resolve reference '%s'"),
-				    ref_update_original_update_refname(u), u->refname);
-			ret = -1;
-			goto done;
-		}
-
-		if (u->type & REF_ISSYMREF) {
-			/*
-			 * The reftable stack is locked at this point already,
-			 * so it is safe to call `refs_resolve_ref_unsafe()`
-			 * here without causing races.
-			 */
-			const char *resolved = refs_resolve_ref_unsafe(&refs->base, u->refname, 0,
-								       &current_oid, NULL);
-
-			if (u->flags & REF_NO_DEREF) {
-				if (u->flags & REF_HAVE_OLD && !resolved) {
-					strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
-						    "error reading reference"), u->refname);
-					ret = -1;
-					goto done;
-				}
-			} else {
-				struct ref_update *new_update;
-				int new_flags;
-
-				new_flags = u->flags;
-				if (!strcmp(rewritten_ref, "HEAD"))
-					new_flags |= REF_UPDATE_VIA_HEAD;
-
-				/*
-				 * If we are updating a symref (eg. HEAD), we should also
-				 * update the branch that the symref points to.
-				 *
-				 * This is generic functionality, and would be better
-				 * done in refs.c, but the current implementation is
-				 * intertwined with the locking in files-backend.c.
-				 */
-				new_update = ref_transaction_add_update(
-					transaction, referent.buf, new_flags,
-					u->new_target ? NULL : &u->new_oid,
-					u->old_target ? NULL : &u->old_oid,
-					u->new_target, u->old_target,
-					u->committer_info, u->msg);
-
-				new_update->parent_update = u;
-
-				/*
-				 * Change the symbolic ref update to log only. Also, it
-				 * doesn't need to check its old OID value, as that will be
-				 * done when new_update is processed.
-				 */
-				u->flags |= REF_LOG_ONLY | REF_NO_DEREF;
-				u->flags &= ~REF_HAVE_OLD;
-
-				if (string_list_has_string(&affected_refnames, new_update->refname)) {
-					strbuf_addf(err,
-						    _("multiple updates for '%s' (including one "
-						    "via symref '%s') are not allowed"),
-						    referent.buf, u->refname);
-					ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
-					goto done;
-				}
-				string_list_insert(&affected_refnames, new_update->refname);
-			}
-		}
-
-		/*
-		 * Verify that the old object matches our expectations. Note
-		 * that the error messages here do not make a lot of sense in
-		 * the context of the reftable backend as we never lock
-		 * individual refs. But the error messages match what the files
-		 * backend returns, which keeps our tests happy.
-		 */
-		if (u->old_target) {
-			if (!(u->type & REF_ISSYMREF)) {
-				strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
-					   "expected symref with target '%s': "
-					   "but is a regular ref"),
-					    ref_update_original_update_refname(u),
-					    u->old_target);
-				ret = -1;
-				goto done;
-			}
+		ret = prepare_single_update(refs, tx_data, transaction, be,
+					    transaction->updates[i], i,
+					    &refnames_to_check, head_type,
+					    &head_referent, &referent, err);
+		if (ret) {
+			if (ref_transaction_maybe_set_rejected(transaction, i, ret)) {
+				strbuf_reset(err);
+				ret = 0;
 
-			if (ref_update_check_old_target(referent.buf, u, err)) {
-				ret = -1;
-				goto done;
-			}
-		} else if ((u->flags & REF_HAVE_OLD) && !oideq(&current_oid, &u->old_oid)) {
-			ret = TRANSACTION_NAME_CONFLICT;
-			if (is_null_oid(&u->old_oid)) {
-				strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
-						   "reference already exists"),
-					    ref_update_original_update_refname(u));
-				ret = TRANSACTION_CREATE_EXISTS;
+				continue;
 			}
-			else if (is_null_oid(&current_oid))
-				strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
-						   "reference is missing but expected %s"),
-					    ref_update_original_update_refname(u),
-					    oid_to_hex(&u->old_oid));
-			else
-				strbuf_addf(err, _("cannot lock ref '%s': "
-						   "is at %s but expected %s"),
-					    ref_update_original_update_refname(u),
-					    oid_to_hex(&current_oid),
-					    oid_to_hex(&u->old_oid));
 			goto done;
 		}
-
-		/*
-		 * If all of the following conditions are true:
-		 *
-		 *   - We're not about to write a symref.
-		 *   - We're not about to write a log-only entry.
-		 *   - Old and new object ID are different.
-		 *
-		 * Then we're essentially doing a no-op update that can be
-		 * skipped. This is not only for the sake of efficiency, but
-		 * also skips writing unneeded reflog entries.
-		 */
-		if ((u->type & REF_ISSYMREF) ||
-		    (u->flags & REF_LOG_ONLY) ||
-		    (u->flags & REF_HAVE_NEW && !oideq(&current_oid, &u->new_oid))) {
-			ret = queue_transaction_update(refs, tx_data, u,
-						       &current_oid, err);
-			if (ret)
-				goto done;
-		}
 	}
 
-	ret = refs_verify_refnames_available(ref_store, &refnames_to_check, &affected_refnames, NULL,
+	ret = refs_verify_refnames_available(ref_store, &refnames_to_check,
+					     &transaction->refnames, NULL,
+					     transaction,
 					     transaction->flags & REF_TRANSACTION_FLAG_INITIAL,
 					     err);
 	if (ret < 0)
@@ -1393,7 +1398,6 @@ static int reftable_be_transaction_prepare(struct ref_store *ref_store,
 	transaction->state = REF_TRANSACTION_PREPARED;
 
 done:
-	assert(ret != REFTABLE_API_ERROR);
 	if (ret < 0) {
 		free_transaction_data(tx_data);
 		transaction->state = REF_TRANSACTION_CLOSED;
@@ -1401,10 +1405,9 @@ done:
 			strbuf_addf(err, _("reftable: transaction prepare: %s"),
 				    reftable_error_str(ret));
 	}
-	string_list_clear(&affected_refnames, 0);
 	strbuf_release(&referent);
 	strbuf_release(&head_referent);
-	string_list_clear(&refnames_to_check, 0);
+	string_list_clear(&refnames_to_check, 1);
 
 	return ret;
 }
@@ -1463,6 +1466,9 @@ static int write_transaction_table(struct reftable_writer *writer, void *cb_data
 		struct reftable_transaction_update *tx_update = &arg->updates[i];
 		struct ref_update *u = tx_update->update;
 
+		if (u->rejection_err)
+			continue;
+
 		/*
 		 * Write a reflog entry when updating a ref to point to
 		 * something new in either of the following cases:
diff --git a/t/t1400-update-ref.sh b/t/t1400-update-ref.sh
index 29045aad43..d29d23cb89 100755
--- a/t/t1400-update-ref.sh
+++ b/t/t1400-update-ref.sh
@@ -2066,6 +2066,239 @@ do
 		grep "$(git rev-parse $a) $(git rev-parse $a)" actual
 	'
 
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit commit &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref1" "$head" "$Z" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref2" "$head" "$Z" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --stdin --batch-updates <stdin &&
+			echo $head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref1 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref2 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates with invalid new_oid" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref1 $head &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref2 $head &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref1" "$old_head" "$head" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref2" "$(test_oid 001)" "$head" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref1 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			echo $head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref2 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			test_grep -q "invalid new value provided" stdout
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates with non-commit new_oid" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			head_tree=$(git rev-parse HEAD^{tree}) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref1 $head &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref2 $head &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref1" "$old_head" "$head" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref2" "$head_tree" "$head" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref1 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			echo $head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref2 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			test_grep -q "invalid new value provided" stdout
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates with non-existent ref" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref1 $head &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref1" "$old_head" "$head" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref2" "$old_head" "$head" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref1 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			test_must_fail git rev-parse refs/heads/ref2 &&
+			test_grep -q "reference does not exist" stdout
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates with dangling symref" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref1 $head &&
+			git symbolic-ref refs/heads/ref2 refs/heads/nonexistent &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref1" "$old_head" "$head" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref2" "$old_head" "$head" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --no-deref --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref1 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			echo $head >expect &&
+			test_must_fail git rev-parse refs/heads/ref2 &&
+			test_grep -q "reference does not exist" stdout
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates with regular ref as symref" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref1 $head &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref2 $head &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref1" "$old_head" "$head" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "symref-update refs/heads/ref2" "$old_head" "ref" "refs/heads/nonexistent" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --no-deref --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref1 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			echo $head >expect &&
+			echo $head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref2 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			test_grep -q "expected symref but found regular ref" stdout
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates with invalid old_oid" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref1 $head &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref2 $head &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref1" "$old_head" "$head" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref2" "$old_head" "$Z" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref1 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			echo $head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref2 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			test_grep -q "reference already exists" stdout
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates with incorrect old oid" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref1 $head &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref2 $head &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref1" "$old_head" "$head" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref2" "$head" "$old_head" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref1 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			echo $head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref2 >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			test_grep -q "incorrect old value provided" stdout
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates refname conflict" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref/foo $head &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref/foo" "$old_head" "$head" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref" "$old_head" "" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/ref/foo >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			test_grep -q "refname conflict" stdout
+		)
+	'
+
+	test_expect_success "stdin $type batch-updates refname conflict new ref" '
+		git init repo &&
+		test_when_finished "rm -fr repo" &&
+		(
+			cd repo &&
+			test_commit one &&
+			old_head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			test_commit two &&
+			head=$(git rev-parse HEAD) &&
+			git update-ref refs/heads/ref/foo $head &&
+
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/foo" "$old_head" "" >stdin &&
+			format_command $type "update refs/heads/ref" "$old_head" "" >>stdin &&
+			git update-ref $type --stdin --batch-updates <stdin >stdout &&
+			echo $old_head >expect &&
+			git rev-parse refs/heads/foo >actual &&
+			test_cmp expect actual &&
+			test_grep -q "refname conflict" stdout
+		)
+	'
 done
 
 test_expect_success 'update-ref should also create reflog for HEAD' '